الأربعاء، 13 نوفمبر 2013
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear power gives us about 17 % of the world’s electricity . Some countries produce more nuclear power than others. France, for example, gets about 75 % of its energy from nuclear power plants , the USA only 15 %. Many countries, like Austria, don’t have any nuclear energy at all.
In a nuclear power station uranium atoms are split apart to create
energy. Uranium can be found in rocks on earth, but only a special form
of uranium—U 235—can be used to make energy. A pound of uranium has the
same energy as about 250 000 litres of petrol .
Control rods are put into the reactor so that the chain reaction doesn’t go on so fast. The chain reaction also gives off heat energy. This heat is used to make water hot and produce steam . The steam turns a turbine to generate electricity.
When parts of atoms hit each other they also become radioactive , which is very dangerous if it doesn't stay in the reactor.
Control rods are also put into the core. They take up the neutrons and control the chain reaction. They can be raised or lowered into the core. If you raise them the chain reaction goes on quicker , the core gets hotter and more energy is produced. If you lower them they absorb free neutrons and the chain reaction is slowed down.
Fusion is better than fission because it doesn’t create that much radiation and you can use water as fuel .
But even though uranium can be used again it finally has to be stored safely. Nuclear waste remains radioactive for thousands of years. Even putting it deep into a mountain would not be completely safe.
But as time went on and disasters in Three Mile Island and in Chernobyl happened, people around the world saw nuclear energy as a danger. Some countries have already stopped their reactors completely and other are shutting them down in the near future .
About 100 million curies of radiation escaped from the station into the atmosphere. Most of it fell on the farmland of Belarus and the Ukraine. A lot of fallout also drifted westwards to northern and central Europe.
The people of Chernobyl were exposed to radiation about 100 times greater than from the bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima. Since the accident, many hundred thousand people have become ill, a lot of them have died of cancer or other diseases.
Over 400,000 people had to leave their homes as a result of the explosion. The area around Chernobyl today is a radioactive desert and nobody is allowed to live there.
The population of the Ukraine and Belarus is living in constant danger because the water is still poisoned and the ground on which they plant crops is still radioactive. The children are not allowed to walk in forests, play in parks or pick wild flowers.
The energy of atoms
Nuclear energy comes from the energy inside each atom. Atoms are made up of a nucleus with protons and neutrons—and electrons which revolve around the nucleus like the earth goes around the sun.Nuclear fission
An atom’s nucleus can be split apart. When this is done, a lot of energy is released . Albert Einstein, the world’s most famous scientist, said that you can get a lot of energy out of a small number of atoms. When it is let out slowly, you can use this energy to produce electricity , but if you let it out all at once, it can cause a great explosion—like in an atomic bomb.In a nuclear power station uranium atoms are split apart to create
energy. Uranium can be found in rocks on earth, but only a special form
of uranium—U 235—can be used to make energy. A pound of uranium has the
same energy as about 250 000 litres of petrol . Chain Reaction
In a nuclear reactor free neutrons hit a uranium atom and split it. New neutrons are set free and when they run into other uranium atoms they split them again. When this continues over and over again, you call it a chain reaction .Control rods are put into the reactor so that the chain reaction doesn’t go on so fast. The chain reaction also gives off heat energy. This heat is used to make water hot and produce steam . The steam turns a turbine to generate electricity.
When parts of atoms hit each other they also become radioactive , which is very dangerous if it doesn't stay in the reactor.
Inside a power plant
A nuclear power plant must be safe, otherwise radiation could get into the air. They have a containment - a building around it that is made of concrete and steel. In the core of the reactor uranium is formed into long rods which are put into water. This water cools the rods when they get too hot.Control rods are also put into the core. They take up the neutrons and control the chain reaction. They can be raised or lowered into the core. If you raise them the chain reaction goes on quicker , the core gets hotter and more energy is produced. If you lower them they absorb free neutrons and the chain reaction is slowed down.
Dangers of nuclear energy
Nuclear power plants have advantages because they produce electricity in a clean way. But there are also many problems- Natural uranium cannot be used in power plants. You have to enrich it. This costs a lot of money and is not good for our environment .
- There is the danger of nuclear explosions. The explosion at Chernobyl in 1986 blew up the rector’s containment and tons of radioactive dust were blown into the atmosphere. Many people were killed and millions around the power station had to leave their homes.
- Used uranium stays radioactive for thousands of years. There is no way to store it safely.
- Transporting uranium is very dangerous.
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion is the opposite of fission. The nuclei of small atoms are joined to make one bigger atom. The sun uses nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms to produce light and heat.Fusion is better than fission because it doesn’t create that much radiation and you can use water as fuel .
Nuclear Waste
When the uranium in the core of a reactor is used up, you have to take it out . In some cases uranium can be recycled and used again. If you reprocess uranium you can make another dangerous product—plutonium, which is used to make atomic bombs.But even though uranium can be used again it finally has to be stored safely. Nuclear waste remains radioactive for thousands of years. Even putting it deep into a mountain would not be completely safe.
The future
In the 1950s and 60s we thought that nuclear power was a clean and cheap form of energy. The energy companies thought that nuclear energy would replace coal, oil and gas.But as time went on and disasters in Three Mile Island and in Chernobyl happened, people around the world saw nuclear energy as a danger. Some countries have already stopped their reactors completely and other are shutting them down in the near future .
The World’s Worst Nuclear Disaster—What Happened at Chernobyl
On 26th April 1986 the world’s worst nuclear disaster took place at the Chernobyl nuclear power station in the northern Ukraine. One of the four reactors exploded because the operators were very careless about safety during a routine test. The explosion blasted a large hole through the roof of the building. Tons of radioactive material were blown up to a height of about 1 km. There was also a big fire in the station.About 100 million curies of radiation escaped from the station into the atmosphere. Most of it fell on the farmland of Belarus and the Ukraine. A lot of fallout also drifted westwards to northern and central Europe.
The people of Chernobyl were exposed to radiation about 100 times greater than from the bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima. Since the accident, many hundred thousand people have become ill, a lot of them have died of cancer or other diseases.
Over 400,000 people had to leave their homes as a result of the explosion. The area around Chernobyl today is a radioactive desert and nobody is allowed to live there.
The population of the Ukraine and Belarus is living in constant danger because the water is still poisoned and the ground on which they plant crops is still radioactive. The children are not allowed to walk in forests, play in parks or pick wild flowers.
If Conditions
قاعدة If لها ثلاث حالات ..
الحالة الأولى:
If + Present Simple, will + infinitive.
Ex. If he studies hard, he will succeed.
- تستخدم لحدث مطابق للواقع, أي أن الشخص يذاكر بالفعل, و لكي نربط مذاكرته في الحاضر بالنتيجة في المستقبل نستخدم الحالة الأولى.
الحالة الثانية:
If + Past Simple, would + infinitive.
Ex. If he studied hard, he would succeed.
- تستخدم للتعبير عن إفتراض في الحاضر, أي أن الشخص لا يذاكر في الحاضر و لكننا نفترض أنه إن يذاكر في الحاضر, سوف ينجح.
الحالة الثالثة:
If + Past Perfect, would have + P.P.
Ex. If he had studied hard, he would have succeeded.
- تستخدم للتعبير عن إفتراض في الماضي, أي أن الشخص لم يذاكر في الماضي و أنه رسب. بمعنى أنه لو كان قد ذاكر لكان قد نجح.
Exercise
1- He studies hard. He will succeed. (Join)
If he studies hard, he will succeed.
2- Factories close. Many people lose their jobs. (Join using: If)
If factories didn’t close, many people wouldn’t lose their jobs.
3- Facories closed. Many people lost their jobs. (Join using: If)
If factories hadn’t closed, many people wouldn’t have lost their jobs.
ملاحظات: في الحالات الثانية و الثالثة نفترض عكس الواقع.
Conditional Clauses
* Formation : The three principal sentence patterns using ( if ) or ( unless ) are :
- If ( Present simple ),…will / shall + infinitive.
- If ( Past simple ),…would + infinitive.
- If ( Past perfect ),…would + have + P.P.
N.B. - If the if-clause is in the present simple, the result clause will also be in the
present simple, provided that the sentence is expressing a fact.
- For unlikely or improbable conditions, use ( were ) instead of (was).
- Sometimes conditions are expressed by inversion with the use of
( Were / Had / Should ) + Subject…
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Examples
1-If you invite her, she ( come ).
*If you invite her, she will come.
2-If it remained fine, we ( go ) for a swim.
*If it remained fine, we would go for a swim.
3-Unless you guide me, I ( be ) quite at a loss.
*Unless you guide me, I will be quite at a loss.
4-If I ( be ) you, I wouldn’t apologize.
*If I were you, I wouldn’t apologize.
5-Were I rich, I ( buy ) an aeroplane.
*Were I rich, I would buy an aeroplane.
6-Should they arrive late, it ( be ) difficult to find them room.
*Should they arrive late, it would be difficult to find them room.
7-Had I studied harder, I ( pass ) the test.
*Had I studied harder, I would have passed the test.
8-If metals are heated, they ( expand ).
*If metals are heated, they expand.
9-I would be pleased if you ( come ).
*I would be pleased if you came.
10-If I had met him, I ( tell ) him the truth.
*If I had met him, I would have told him the truth.
Phonetics
Pronunciations in the American English and Essential American English dictionary do not use the 'long vowel' marker /ː/ and, in place of the syllable division marker /./, they use a raised dot /·/.
Vowels
Long Vowels
|
Short Vowels
|
Consonants
Voiced
|
Voiceless
|
Diphthongs
| eɪ | day |
| aɪ | eye |
| ɔɪ | boy |
| aʊ | mouth |
| əʊ | nose (UK |
| oʊ | nose (US |
| ɪə | ear (UK |
| eə | hair (UK |
| ʊə | pure (UK |
Other Symbols
| h |
/ˈhænd/
hand |
| ɒ̃ |
/ˈkwæs.ɒ̃/
croissant (UK) |
| i | /ˈhæp.i/
happy |
| t ̬ | /ˈbʌt ̬.ɚ/
butter (US) |
| u | /ˌɪn.fluˈen.zə/
influenza |
| l ̩ | /ˈlɪt.l ̩/
little |
| əl, əm, ən can be pronounced either: əl or l ̩ etc.: | ||
| /ˈleɪb.əl/ = /ˈleɪb.əl/ or /ˈleɪb.l̩/ | ||
| r |
linking r is pronounced only before a vowel in British
English:
fɔːr + ˈæp.l ̩z = fɔːˈræp.l ̩z four + apples = four apples | |
| ˈ | main stress | /ˌek.spekˈteɪ.ʃən/ expectation |
| ˌ | secondary stress | /ˌriːˈtell/ retell |
| . | syllable division | /ˈsɪs.təm/ system |
Differences Between American and British English
While there are certainly many more varieties of English, American
English and British English are the two varieties that are taught in
most ESL/EFL programs. Generally, it is agreed that no one version is
"correct" however, there are certainly preferences in use. The three
major differences between between American and British English are:
Use of the Present Perfect
In British English the present perfect is used to express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment. For example:
I've lost my key. Can you help me look for it?
In American English the following is also possible:
I lost my key. Can you help me look for it?
In British English the above would be considered incorrect. However, both forms are generally accepted in standard American English. Other differences involving the use of the present perfect in British English and simple past in American English include already, just and yet.
British English:
I've just had lunch
I've already seen that film
Have you finished your homework yet?
American English:
I just had lunch OR I've just had lunch
I've already seen that film OR I already saw that film.
Have your finished your homework yet? OR Did you finish your homework yet?
Possession
There are two forms to express possession in English. Have or Have got
Do you have a car?
Have you got a car?
He hasn't got any friends.
He doesn't have any friends.
She has a beautiful new home.
She's got a beautiful new home.
While both forms are correct (and accepted in both British and American English), have got (have you got, he hasn't got, etc.) is generally the preferred form in British English while most speakers of American English employ the have (do you have, he doesn't have etc.)
The Verb Get
The past participle of the verb get is gotten in American English. Example He's gotten much better at playing tennis. British English - He's got much better at playing tennis.
Vocabulary
Probably the major differences between British and American English lies in the choice of vocabulary. Some words mean different things in the two varieties for example:
Mean: (American English - angry, bad humored, British English - not generous, tight fisted)
Rubber: (American English - condom, British English - tool used to erase pencil markings)
There are many more examples (too many for me to list here). If there is a difference in usage, your dictionary will note the different meanings in its definition of the term. Many vocabulary items are also used in one form and not in the other. One of the best examples of this is the terminology used for automobiles.
For a more complete list of the vocabulary differences between British and American English use this British vs. American English vocabulary tool.
Prepositions
There are also a few differences in preposition use including the following:
The following verbs have two acceptable forms of the past simple/past participle in both American and British English, however, the irregular form is generally more common in British English (the first form of the two) and the regular form is more common to American English.
Here are some general differences between British and American spellings:
Words ending in -or (American) -our (British) color, colour, humor, humour, flavor, flavour etc.
Words ending in -ize (American) -ise (British) recognize, recognise, patronize, patronise etc.
The best way to make sure that you are being consistent in your spelling is to use the spell check on your word processor (if you are using the computer of course) and choose which variety of English you would like. As you can see, there are really very few differences between standard British English and standard American English. However, the largest difference is probably that of the choice of vocabulary and pronunciation.
- Pronunciation - differences in both vowel and consonants, as well as stress and intonation
- Vocabulary - differences in nouns and verbs, especially phrasal verb usage
- Spelling - differences are generally found in certain prefix and suffix forms
Use of the Present Perfect
In British English the present perfect is used to express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment. For example:
I've lost my key. Can you help me look for it?
In American English the following is also possible:
I lost my key. Can you help me look for it?
In British English the above would be considered incorrect. However, both forms are generally accepted in standard American English. Other differences involving the use of the present perfect in British English and simple past in American English include already, just and yet.
British English:
I've just had lunch
I've already seen that film
Have you finished your homework yet?
American English:
I just had lunch OR I've just had lunch
I've already seen that film OR I already saw that film.
Have your finished your homework yet? OR Did you finish your homework yet?
Possession
There are two forms to express possession in English. Have or Have got
Do you have a car?
Have you got a car?
He hasn't got any friends.
He doesn't have any friends.
She has a beautiful new home.
She's got a beautiful new home.
While both forms are correct (and accepted in both British and American English), have got (have you got, he hasn't got, etc.) is generally the preferred form in British English while most speakers of American English employ the have (do you have, he doesn't have etc.)
The Verb Get
The past participle of the verb get is gotten in American English. Example He's gotten much better at playing tennis. British English - He's got much better at playing tennis.
Vocabulary
Probably the major differences between British and American English lies in the choice of vocabulary. Some words mean different things in the two varieties for example:
Mean: (American English - angry, bad humored, British English - not generous, tight fisted)
Rubber: (American English - condom, British English - tool used to erase pencil markings)
There are many more examples (too many for me to list here). If there is a difference in usage, your dictionary will note the different meanings in its definition of the term. Many vocabulary items are also used in one form and not in the other. One of the best examples of this is the terminology used for automobiles.
- American English - hood
British English - bonnet
- American English - trunk
British English - boot
- American English - truck
British English - lorry
For a more complete list of the vocabulary differences between British and American English use this British vs. American English vocabulary tool.
Prepositions
There are also a few differences in preposition use including the following:
- American English - on the weekend
British English - at the weekend
- American English - on a team
British English - in a team
- American English - please write me soon
British English - please write to me soon
The following verbs have two acceptable forms of the past simple/past participle in both American and British English, however, the irregular form is generally more common in British English (the first form of the two) and the regular form is more common to American English.
- Burn
Burnt OR burned
- Dream
dreamt OR dreamed
- Lean
leant OR leaned
- Learn
learnt OR learned
- Smell
smelt OR smelled
- Spell
spelt OR spelled
- Spill
spilt OR spilled
Spoil
spoilt OR spoiled
Here are some general differences between British and American spellings:
Words ending in -or (American) -our (British) color, colour, humor, humour, flavor, flavour etc.
Words ending in -ize (American) -ise (British) recognize, recognise, patronize, patronise etc.
The best way to make sure that you are being consistent in your spelling is to use the spell check on your word processor (if you are using the computer of course) and choose which variety of English you would like. As you can see, there are really very few differences between standard British English and standard American English. However, the largest difference is probably that of the choice of vocabulary and pronunciation.
Modal Verbs
** Can and Could
تستخدم can-could للتعبير عن القدرة
She can type very fast
Adam could run fast when he was young
تستخدم can للتعبير عن الامكانية
You can watch this movie or the match, but you cannot watch both at the same time
تستخدم can فى الاسئلة للتعبير عن فكره محدده وهى امكانية حدوث شىء ما
can anyone believe his lies?
تستعمل can – could للقيام بتنفيذ مطالب غير رسمية
could you open the door, please?
ملاحظه : نلاحظ ان could استخدامها اكثر تهذيبا من can
تستخدم could للتعبير عن الشك
Your story could be true, but it is hard for anyone to believe it
.
** May and Might
تستخدم May – Might للتعبير عن طلب اذن
You may leave at 3p.m
May I go to the party?
He asked if he might come to visit us.
تستخدم May-Might للتعبير عن المطالبه بشىء ما ولكن نلاحظ ان استخدام Might اكثر تهذيبا من May
Might we talk for while, please?
تستخدم May للتعبير عن الامتناع
You may not park your car here.
تستخدم May للتعبير عن القدرة
The news about the attach May be true.
نلاحظ ان May تتحول الى can not وليست الى May not في النفى وذلك عندما تتحدث عن القدره تستخدم Might للتعبير عن عدم التاكد
He might be right
He might know the answer.
تستخدم Might-May للتعبير عن التمنى
May your dreams come true!
? May you have a very happy weekend
** Shall-will
تستخدم shall مع الضمائر الاتية we – I للتعبير عن التصميم او اتخاذ القرار
I shall go to the party regardless of the bad weather
We shall fight our battle, whatever be cost.
تستخدم shall للتنبأ
will we find our way? i'm sure we shall
تستخدم will للتعبير عن عدم الرضا والوعد او التصميم
I will pay your mobile bill if you pass your exam. عدم الرضا
I will send Marry a happy birthday card . الرضا
I will repair this T.V even I have to stay up all night . التصميم
تستخدم should – ought to للتعبير عن الواجب
You should do as you are told
** Must
تستخدم must للتعبير عن الالزام
In England traffic must keep to the left.
You must wipe your feet before coming in the house.
must تتحول الى must not فى صيغة النفى وتدل على الامتناع
You must not park here.
You must not smoke here.
عندما تكون must لها معنى فى الجمله ففى هذه الحاله قد لا تفيد الالزام ولذلك نضع need not بدلا من must not
must I answer all questions? No, you need not answer them all it is sufficient to answer three of them.
عندما تشير must الى الاستنتاج فقد تتحول الى can't be فى صيغة النفى ولكن اذا كانت must تشير الى الامتناع فتتحول الى must not فى النفى
You have only just eaten. You cannot be hungry
You must not be noisy outside a hospital.
تستخدم must have been للتعبير عن الاستنتاج فى زمن الماضى
You hadn't eaten for hours, you must have been hungry.
تتحول must have been الى cannot – could not have been فى صيغة النفى
You had or leady eaten you cannot have been hungry.
تستخدم الافعال الناقصة للتعبير عن التاكد وعدم التاكد تستخدم must- can not للتعبير عن التاكد
He could be center. He could know the answer [ متأكد بدرجة ضعيفة ]
He must be center. He cannot know the answer [ غالبا متأكد ]
He cannot be center. He cannot know the answer [ غالبا متأكد ]
تستخدم be او اى فعل عادى للتعبير عن التاكد المطلق
He is center. You know the answer.
تستخدم would للتعبير عن القيام بغرض شىء ما
Would / would not you like some coffee?
تستخدم would لتقديم الاقتراحات
Would/would not you like to come with us?
تستخدم would- will لمطالبة الاخرين بعمل شيئا ما
Will I would you please open the window for me?
** Shall -Should
تستخدم shall/should للتعبير عن القيام ببعض الاشياء للاخرين
shall I carry this bag for you?
تستخدم ايضا لتقديم الاقتراحات بحيث تتضمن المتكلم
shall we go to the cinema?
تستخدم should لتقديم النصيحة
You should take a coat in case it rains.
استخدام need-dare كافعال ناقصة وكافعال كاملة يمكن استخدام need not كفعل ناقص اذا كانت تشير الى عدم الضرورة
I need not go to the school today
I need not have gone to the school yesterday
تستخدم need كفعل ناقص فى حالة الاثبات
تستخدم need فى الاسئلة
Need you go so soon?
تستخدم need كافعل قياسى
I need to go to the dentist this morning
تتحول need الى needed فى زمن الماضى كما تتحول الى don’t need to فى صيغة النفى فى المضارع وتتحول الى didn’t need to فى صيغة النفى فى الماضى
تستخدم dare كفعل ناقص غالبا فى صيغة النفى للتعبير عن قلة الشجاعة
I dare not ask for more money
I dare not tell my father the truth
فى حالة الاثبات تستخدم dare كفعل ناقص اما فى حالة الاسئلة فتستخدم كفعل كامل
Dare you do it?
Do you dare to tell him the truth?
تستخدم dare not كصيغة نفى ل dare وتعتبر فعل كامل
I dare not say so
تتحول dare الى didn’t dare فى صيغة النفى فى الماضى
I didn’t dare to say so
تستخدم dare للتعبير عن الشجاعة
Very few climbers have dared to attempt Mount Everest without [ للتعبير عن قلةالشجاعة ]
I don’t dare to tell my children that our holiday has been cancelled [ للتعبير عن التجدى ]
I dare you to jump off that wall [ للتعبير عن الغضب ]
How dare you read my private diary?
الثلاثاء، 12 نوفمبر 2013
Parts of speech
كما في كل اللغات، تتألف اللغة
الانجليزية من كلمات. و هذه الكلمات بدروها تنقسم الى 8 أقسام تدعى
أقسام الكلام او Parts of speech.
اولا:الاسماء Nouns
Nouns are names of
persons, places, objects and ideas
الاسماء هي ما نسمي او ندعو به كل شيء حولنا من اشخاص او حيوانات او اشياء او افكار
الاسماء هي ما نسمي او ندعو به كل شيء حولنا من اشخاص او حيوانات او اشياء او افكار
persons: student,
Walid, mother
animals: cat, frog, horse
places: library, street, Egypt
things: desk, table, chair
ideas: friendship, love, honesty
animals: cat, frog, horse
places: library, street, Egypt
things: desk, table, chair
ideas: friendship, love, honesty
ثانيا: Pronouns
Pronouns are words
that replace a noun. Like thenoun they replace, they can refer
to a person, object, or idea
هي الضمائر و التي تحل عادة محل الاسماء في الجملة و ممكن
ان تدل مثل الاسماء على اشخاص او اشياء او حيوانات الخ...
person: I, you, he,
she, we, they
thing/idea: this, that, these, those
thing/idea: this, that, these, those
ثالثا: Verbs
Verbs are words
that express action. They alsoindicate when the action takes
place through the tense used
الافعال و هي ما نقوم به من أعمال و الافعال لها صيغ و
اشكال مختلفة
examples: bark, read, write, talk, play,
decide
رابعا: Adjectives
Adjectives are
words that describe a noun or a pronoun. An adjective could
define the number, color, state, or kind of a noun or pronoun
الصفات هي الكلمات التي تصف الاسماء او الضمائر و هي تعبر
عن اللون او العدد او الحالة او النوع الخ..
Number: five, ten ,
thirty
Color: green, red, brown
State: old, tidy, respectable
Kind: Italian, comical
Color: green, red, brown
State: old, tidy, respectable
Kind: Italian, comical
تأتي الصفات عادة في اللغة
الانجليزية قبل الاسماء
مثلا: red rose, hot tea, beautiful girl
مثلا: red rose, hot tea, beautiful girl
و لكنها ممكن ان تأتي بعض الافعال
مثل verb be مثلا:
she is beautiful
He is smart
We are happy
she is beautiful
He is smart
We are happy
او بعد الافعال التي تعبر عن الحالات او كيف تبدو الاشياء
linking verbs
The food tastes
good
The perfume smells nice
He looks sad
The perfume smells nice
He looks sad
خامسا: Adverbs
Adverbs are words that describe a verb
giving additional information about when, where, or how the
action occurred
هي كلمات تصف الافعال و تعطي معلومات اضافية عن متى و اين
و كيف حدث الفعل
When: yearly, often,
yesterday, always, usually
Where: away, down, outside, up
How: loudly, correctly, fast, slowly
Where: away, down, outside, up
How: loudly, correctly, fast, slowly
سادسا: Prepositions
Prepositions are words used with nouns or
pronouns to connect them with other verbs in the sentence
احرف الجر هي كلمات تستعمل مع الاسماء او الضمائر و تربطهم
مع باقي اجزاء الجملة
Examples: in, on, at, from, above, behind,
through, across
ملاحظة هامة: بعض احرف الجر قد تأتي
adverbs في بعض الجمل. حتى تعرف اذا كانت الكلمة حرف جر او adverb
نظر الى الكلمة التي بعدها. اذا كانت الكلمة اسم او ضمير عندها
تكون الكلمة حرف جر اما اذا كانت غير هذا ان ان الجملة انتهت عند
الكلمة المحيرة عندها تكون adverb
we went around the field
around نا هي حرف جر لأنه جاء بدها اسم the field
we went around the field
around نا هي حرف جر لأنه جاء بدها اسم the field
اما اذا كانت الجملة we went around
فهنا around هي adverb لأنها في آخر الجملة
فهنا around هي adverb لأنها في آخر الجملة
سابعا: Conjunctions
Conjunctions are
words that connectwords, phrases or clauses. A conjunction may
be a coordinating, subordinating ora correlative conjunction
هي كلمات تقوم بربط الجمل او اجزا من الجمل ببعضها لتعطي معنى اوضح و افضل
هي كلمات تقوم بربط الجمل او اجزا من الجمل ببعضها لتعطي معنى اوضح و افضل
Coordinating
conjunction: and, or, but, for, so, yet, nor
subordinating conjunction: when, where, after, eventhough, because, which, whose, however
correlative conjunction, not only...but also, neither,,,nor, either....or
subordinating conjunction: when, where, after, eventhough, because, which, whose, however
correlative conjunction, not only...but also, neither,,,nor, either....or
ثامنا: Interjunctions
An interjection is an unusual kind of word,
because it often stands alone. Interjections are words which
express emotion or surprise, and they are usually followed by
exclamation marks.
هي عبارة عن كلمات تعبر فقط عن شعور
قوي او مفاجأة و عادة يكون بعدها علامة تعجب !
Examples:
Ouch!, Hello!, Hurray!, Oh no!, Ha
اللغة الانجليزية
يبلغ عدد الأحرف الإنجليزية (26) حرفاً، تنقسم إلى ثلاثة أقسام:
خمسة أحرف صوتية أو علة Vowels وهي (a ,e ,i ,o ,u) .
و حرف صامت mute و هو حرف (H).
وعشرون حرفاً ساكناً Consonants هي باقي الأحرف.
الأحرف المتشابهة لفظاً:
تتشابه بعض الأحرف و يصعب على الطالبة التفريق بينها، مثل:
(c, s, z, x) , (f, v, ph) ,(g, j) , (c, k, q) . و عدم التفريق بين مثل هذه الأحرف قد يؤدي لتغيير معنى الكلمة كما توضحه الأمثلة التالية:
(pan مقلاة ، ban حظر).
(thing شيء, think يفكر).
(glass زجاج , class فصل).
فالفرق بين هذه الكلمات دقيق جداً، لذلك يجب على الطلبة حفظ هذه الأحرف و التفريق بينها.
الأحرف المركبة:
يتغير لفظ الأحرف إذا جاءت في بعض المواقع أو مع أحرف أخرى مثل:
(ia) تُلفظ (يا) مثل (India).
(c) تُلفظ (ك) دائماً مثل (call).
(c) يُلفظ (س) إذا جاء بعده (e, I, y) مثل: (centre, circle, Cyprus) .
(cia) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (special).
(cie) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (species).
(cio) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (spacious).
(xio) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (anxious).
(ture) تُلفظ (تشر) مثل (picture).
(ch) تُلفظ بطريقتين (تش) مثل (chair) + (ك) مثل (chemical).
(gh) تُلفظ بثلاث طرق (ف) مثل (laugh) أو (غ) مثل (Ghanam) أو لا تُلفظ أبداً مثل (thought).
(kh) تُلفظ (خ) مثل (Khalid).
(sh) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (should).
(th) تُلفظ بطريقتين (ذ) مثل (this) أو (ث) مثل (three).
إذا وقع حرف (x) في بداية كلمة فيُلفظ (ز) مثل (Xylography)- فن النقش على الخشب.
(sio) تُلفظ قريباً من (ج) مثل (television).
(su) تُلفظ بطريقتين (ش) مثل (sugar) و تُلفظ قريباً من (ج) مثل (usual).
إذا جاء حرف (a) قبل حرف (l) فيُلفظ (o) غالباً مثل (tall).
يُلفظ حرف دائماً (ي) مثل (yes) .
(tio) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (examination).
(tia) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (Egyptian).
إذا جاء حرف (q) فيجب أن يتبعه حرف (u) مثل (queen).
لا يُلفظ حرف(b) إذا جاء بعد حرف (m) مثل (comb).
لا يُلفظ حرف(k) إذا جاء قبل حرف (n) مثل (kneel).
لا يُلفظ حرف (l) إذا وقع بين (ou) و (d) مثل (could).
لا يُلفظ حرف (l) إذا وقع بين (a) و (f) مثل (half).
لا يُلفظ حرف (l) إذا وقع بين (a) و (k) مثل (talk).
لا يُلفظ حرف(n) إذا جاء بعد حرف (m) مثل (column).
لا يُلفظ حرف(w) إذا جاء قبل (r)مثل (wrong).
لا يُلفظ حرف (t) إذا وقع بين (s_en) مثل (listen).
لا يُلفظ حرف ( r) إذا سبقه حرف صوتي مثل (danger)
خمسة أحرف صوتية أو علة Vowels وهي (a ,e ,i ,o ,u) .
و حرف صامت mute و هو حرف (H).
وعشرون حرفاً ساكناً Consonants هي باقي الأحرف.
الأحرف المتشابهة لفظاً:
تتشابه بعض الأحرف و يصعب على الطالبة التفريق بينها، مثل:
(c, s, z, x) , (f, v, ph) ,(g, j) , (c, k, q) . و عدم التفريق بين مثل هذه الأحرف قد يؤدي لتغيير معنى الكلمة كما توضحه الأمثلة التالية:
(pan مقلاة ، ban حظر).
(thing شيء, think يفكر).
(glass زجاج , class فصل).
فالفرق بين هذه الكلمات دقيق جداً، لذلك يجب على الطلبة حفظ هذه الأحرف و التفريق بينها.
الأحرف المركبة:
يتغير لفظ الأحرف إذا جاءت في بعض المواقع أو مع أحرف أخرى مثل:
(ia) تُلفظ (يا) مثل (India).
(c) تُلفظ (ك) دائماً مثل (call).
(c) يُلفظ (س) إذا جاء بعده (e, I, y) مثل: (centre, circle, Cyprus) .
(cia) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (special).
(cie) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (species).
(cio) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (spacious).
(xio) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (anxious).
(ture) تُلفظ (تشر) مثل (picture).
(ch) تُلفظ بطريقتين (تش) مثل (chair) + (ك) مثل (chemical).
(gh) تُلفظ بثلاث طرق (ف) مثل (laugh) أو (غ) مثل (Ghanam) أو لا تُلفظ أبداً مثل (thought).
(kh) تُلفظ (خ) مثل (Khalid).
(sh) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (should).
(th) تُلفظ بطريقتين (ذ) مثل (this) أو (ث) مثل (three).
إذا وقع حرف (x) في بداية كلمة فيُلفظ (ز) مثل (Xylography)- فن النقش على الخشب.
(sio) تُلفظ قريباً من (ج) مثل (television).
(su) تُلفظ بطريقتين (ش) مثل (sugar) و تُلفظ قريباً من (ج) مثل (usual).
إذا جاء حرف (a) قبل حرف (l) فيُلفظ (o) غالباً مثل (tall).
يُلفظ حرف دائماً (ي) مثل (yes) .
(tio) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (examination).
(tia) تُلفظ (ش) مثل (Egyptian).
إذا جاء حرف (q) فيجب أن يتبعه حرف (u) مثل (queen).
لا يُلفظ حرف(b) إذا جاء بعد حرف (m) مثل (comb).
لا يُلفظ حرف(k) إذا جاء قبل حرف (n) مثل (kneel).
لا يُلفظ حرف (l) إذا وقع بين (ou) و (d) مثل (could).
لا يُلفظ حرف (l) إذا وقع بين (a) و (f) مثل (half).
لا يُلفظ حرف (l) إذا وقع بين (a) و (k) مثل (talk).
لا يُلفظ حرف(n) إذا جاء بعد حرف (m) مثل (column).
لا يُلفظ حرف(w) إذا جاء قبل (r)مثل (wrong).
لا يُلفظ حرف (t) إذا وقع بين (s_en) مثل (listen).
لا يُلفظ حرف ( r) إذا سبقه حرف صوتي مثل (danger)
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